Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) is one of the most famous and controversial figures in Chinese history. Known for her remarkable political acumen and power, she ruled China for nearly half a century, from 1861 until her death in 1908. As the de facto ruler of the Qing Dynasty, Cixi’s decisions, especially her political maneuvers and strategies, had a profound impact on the course of Chinese history. While she is often praised for her leadership during turbulent times, she is also criticized for her authoritarian rule and the controversial policies she implemented during her reign.
This article explores the political decisions made by Empress Dowager Cixi and examines the controversies surrounding her governance. It will address both the criticisms and the accomplishments of her rule, shedding light on how her political decisions shaped the fate of the Qing Dynasty.
I. The Rise of Empress Dowager Cixi
Empress Dowager Cixi’s ascent to power was neither easy nor straightforward. Born in 1835 to a low-ranking family, she entered the Forbidden City as a concubine of Emperor Xianfeng in 1852. Her rise through the ranks of the imperial harem was exceptional, but it was not until the early death of Emperor Xianfeng in 1861 that Cixi’s political career truly began.
Upon the emperor’s death, her young son, the Tongzhi Emperor, ascended the throne. However, Cixi, as the emperor’s mother, became the regent and held real power behind the scenes. Although initially sharing power with other high-ranking officials, Cixi quickly eliminated rivals and consolidated her authority, becoming the sole ruler of China. Despite her status as a woman in a patriarchal society, Cixi’s political skill and determination enabled her to maintain control over the imperial court for decades.
II. The Impact of Cixi’s Leadership on Qing Politics
Cixi’s leadership was both pragmatic and authoritarian. Under her rule, the Qing Dynasty underwent significant political, social, and economic challenges, many of which were exacerbated by foreign imperialism, internal rebellions, and a struggling economy. Her political decisions were often made in response to these pressures, but they also led to controversial outcomes that would affect China’s future.
A. The First Opium War and Its Aftermath
One of the most significant events during Cixi’s early rule was the aftermath of the First Opium War (1839–1842), which had resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Qing Dynasty at the hands of the British Empire. The Treaty of Nanking, signed in 1842, forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, open several ports to foreign trade, and grant extraterritorial rights to foreign nationals. The Treaty of Tientsin (1858) and other unequal treaties signed during this period further weakened China’s sovereignty.
Empress Dowager Cixi’s response to these treaties was mixed. On one hand, she sought to consolidate Qing power by suppressing the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) and the Nian Rebellion (1851–1868), both of which were internal uprisings fueled by discontent with Qing rule. On the other hand, her ability to maintain China’s sovereignty in the face of Western imperialism was called into question by many. Cixi’s early years as regent were marked by efforts to preserve the status quo, but the increasing presence of foreign powers and their demands on China created a political climate of crisis.
B. The Self-Strengthening Movement
In the late 19th century, as China’s internal and external challenges grew, the Self-Strengthening Movement emerged as an effort to modernize China’s military and industrial capabilities. This movement aimed to adopt Western technology and practices in an attempt to strengthen China and protect it from foreign domination.
Empress Dowager Cixi initially supported the movement to some extent, recognizing the need for reform. However, she was also cautious about fully embracing Western ideas, especially because they were seen as a challenge to traditional Confucian values. Cixi’s cautious approach to reform and her resistance to radical changes in the political structure have led to criticism that she was too conservative and too slow in adapting to modernity. While she allowed some military modernization and technological advancements, she ultimately did not fully embrace the sweeping changes that many reformers advocated, leading to a situation where China struggled to keep pace with the rapidly advancing Western world.
C. The Boxer Rebellion and Its Aftermath
One of the most controversial decisions made by Empress Dowager Cixi was her involvement in the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), an anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in northern China. The Boxers, a secret society, sought to expel foreign powers and their influence from China. The movement gained traction among the Chinese population, especially in rural areas, and ultimately led to widespread violence.
At first, Cixi was ambivalent toward the Boxers, but by 1900, she decided to support their cause, believing that it would help protect Chinese sovereignty. She declared war on foreign powers, including Britain, France, Germany, and Japan, and authorized the Boxers to attack foreign nationals and Chinese Christians.
The rebellion, however, led to disastrous consequences for China. An eight-nation alliance, consisting of Japan, Russia, Britain, France, Germany, the United States, Italy, and Austria-Hungary, intervened militarily to suppress the uprising. The foreign powers defeated the Boxers and imposed severe penalties on China through the Boxer Protocol of 1901, which required China to pay large indemnities and make significant concessions to the foreign powers. Cixi’s decision to support the Boxers and her failure to negotiate a peaceful solution led to a loss of credibility and further undermined the Qing Dynasty’s legitimacy.
D. The Reform Movement and the 100 Days’ Reform
By the late 19th century, many reform-minded officials, including Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, called for radical changes to China’s political and social systems. These reforms, known as the 100 Days’ Reform (1898), aimed to modernize China by implementing constitutional monarchy, Western-style education, and military reforms. The reforms were supported by the Guangxu Emperor, who was Cixi’s nephew, and several high-ranking officials.
However, Empress Dowager Cixi viewed these reforms as a threat to her authority. In 1898, she orchestrated a coup, imprisoning the Guangxu Emperor and placing him under house arrest. She dismantled the reforms and reasserted her absolute control over the imperial court. This decisive action has been widely criticized as a missed opportunity for China to modernize in a way that could have strengthened the Qing Dynasty and helped it adapt to the challenges of the modern world.
E. The Fall of the Qing Dynasty and Cixi’s Legacy
Empress Dowager Cixi’s political decisions ultimately contributed to the downfall of the Qing Dynasty. Although she was able to maintain her grip on power for many years, the internal strife, foreign incursions, and failure to modernize led to widespread dissatisfaction with the Qing rulers. The 1911 Xinhai Revolution, which was driven by both revolutionary forces and discontent within the military, ultimately resulted in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China.
Cixi’s legacy remains controversial. While she is credited with maintaining stability during her reign and overseeing the construction of major infrastructure projects, such as the Grand Canal, she is also criticized for her authoritarianism and failure to implement meaningful reforms. Her reluctance to embrace modernization and her support for conservative policies are seen as major factors that contributed to China’s decline during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
III. Conclusion
Empress Dowager Cixi’s reign was marked by political intrigue, controversy, and the struggle to maintain the Qing Dynasty’s control over a rapidly changing China. Her decisions, from her handling of foreign relations to her responses to internal reform movements, shaped the course of Chinese history. While her leadership was pivotal in preserving the Qing Dynasty for several decades, her conservative stance and reluctance to modernize ultimately hastened its decline.
Empress Dowager Cixi’s legacy remains divisive. Some view her as a capable ruler who navigated the complex political landscape of her time, while others criticize her for missing opportunities to modernize China. Regardless of one’s perspective, Cixi’s impact on China’s history is undeniable, and her reign serves as a powerful reminder of the challenges faced by traditional dynasties in the face of modernization and foreign influence.
